X-Particles has the most advanced particle rendering solution on the market. It enables you to render particles, splines, smoke and fire, all within the Cinema 4D renderer. Included are a range of shaders for sprites, particle wet maps and skinning colors. You can even use sound to texture your objects.
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PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope.
Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.
Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Some particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter can get deep into your lungs and some may even get into your bloodstream. Of these, particles less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, also known as fine particles or PM2.5, pose the greatest risk to health.
PM10 and PM2.5 often derive from different emissions sources, and also have different chemical compositions. Emissions from combustion of gasoline, oil, diesel fuel or wood produce much of the PM2.5 pollution found in outdoor air, as well as a significant proportion of PM10. PM10 also includes dust from construction sites, landfills and agriculture, wildfires and brush/waste burning, industrial sources, wind-blown dust from open lands, pollen and fragments of bacteria.PM may be either directly emitted from sources (primary particles) or formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions of gases (secondary particles) such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and certain organic compounds. These organic compounds can be emitted by both natural sources, such as trees and vegetation, as well as from man-made (anthropogenic) sources, such as industrial processes and motor vehicle exhaust. The relative sizes of PM10 and PM2.5 particles are compared in the figure below.
CARB is concerned about air-borne particles because of their effects on the health of Californians and the environment. Both PM2.5 and PM10 can be inhaled, with some depositing throughout the airways, though the locations of particle deposition in the lung depend on particle size. PM2.5 is more likely to travel into and deposit on the surface of the deeper parts of the lung, while PM10 is more likely to deposit on the surfaces of the larger airways of the upper region of the lung. Particles deposited on the lung surface can induce tissue damage, and lung inflammation.
Pu and U µXANES of the Potatohead, Bruce and CeresI hot particles. (a) Pu µXANES of particles, compared to Pu XANES standards (*) from Conradson et al.10,50; locations of the spectra are shown in the Pu L3 µSXRF maps, together with analysis numbers; (b) derivatives of the data shown in (a); (c) first principle FMDNES simulations of Pu spectra. PuO2 was calculated to check that the simulations can reproduce known spectra and then these simulations were used to calculate Pu-carbide spectra, demonstrating that these have a white line at lower energy than PuO2. Crystal structure data: PuC51; Pu2C352; PuO253; Pu2O354; δ-Pu55; α-Pu56. (d) U µXANES of particles compared to uraninite (predominantly U4+) and uranyl nitrate (U6+). Inset shows the first derivative of the µXANES spectrum. The spectra of metallic U and UC as taken from13.
Inferred exposure pathways at Maralinga: the nature of hot particles influences Pu cycling in the environment. The colours in the figure reflect: processes in explosion cloud (white), breakdown processes of Pu particle (blue), exposure pathways via mobile phases (yellow). The background image is from the UK Atomic Energy Authority/Atomic Weapons Research Establishment, available under the Open Government License ( -government-licence/version/3/) and National Archives of Australia A6456, R075/004..
Once liberated from the hot particles, the environmental behaviour of Pu is governed by complex processes3,30 involving solubility, hydrolysis, complexation and sorption (with both inorganic and organic ligand and phases31,32) and nano-particle (colloid) formation reactions (all possibly catalysed by microbiota33). Yet, the potential for Pu to migrate through the soil environment and enter the food chain, and the resulting risk to biota (Fig. 6), can be estimated using radioecological models. These models need to consider not only the amounts of radioactive material released to the environment following an accident, but also the physical and chemical characteristics of the contaminant and their potential changes through time in order to determine the long-term impacts arising from contamination1,3,34,35,36,37. Based on non-destructive micro-analytical characterization, hot particles from sub-critical nuclear incidents across the globe are chemically and texturally heterogeneous (Table S5). This heterogeneity is hindering their inclusion in radioecological models that are used to predict long-term risks38.
At Maralinga, the particles contain Pu (and U) in the form of high temperature, anhydrous phases, that are far from equilibrium with respect to environmental conditions. Textural and phase relationship considerations reveal that all studied particles formed via cooling of polymetallic melts resulting from fissile material mixing with the hot detonation environment. The Pb, Fe and Al present in the particles reflect the composition of the individual devices and detonation characteristics. Unfortunately, no information is available in public records on the specifics of the designs and materials of individual tests. Most Pu is hosted in nano-phases that crystallised during the cooling of these polymetallic melts, and, consequently, the micro- to nano-particulate nature of the Pu in these hot particles, regardless of their bulk composition, is an intrinsic result of their formation via cooling of micro-droplets of polymetallic melt17 (Figs. 3d, 4). The hot, anhydrous micro-environment under which the particles condense in the explosion cloud also accounts for the crystallization of phases that contain Pu (and U) in low valence state (carbides; Pu in Fe-(Al)-alloys). Sub-solidus reactions (e.g. Bruce; arrow in Figs. 3e, 4c,d) and weathering (CeresIII, Figs. 3g,h, 5) further contributed to the generation of fine Pu-rich nanoparticles (
Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whether they are composed of other particles.[1] They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the particles of the Standard Model have been experimentally observed, including the Higgs boson in 2012.[2][3] Many other hypothetical elementary particles, such as the graviton, have been proposed, but not observed experimentally.
Leptons do not interact via the strong interaction. Their respective antiparticles are the antileptons, which are identical, except that they carry the opposite electric charge and lepton number. The antiparticle of an electron is an antielectron, which is almost always called a "positron" for historical reasons. There are six leptons in total; the three charged leptons are called "electron-like leptons", while the neutral leptons are called "neutrinos". Neutrinos are known to oscillate, so that neutrinos of definite flavor do not have definite mass, rather they exist in a superposition of mass eigenstates. The hypothetical heavy right-handed neutrino, called a "sterile neutrino", has been omitted.
The Higgs boson is postulated by the electroweak theory primarily to explain the origin of particle masses. In a process known as the "Higgs mechanism", the Higgs boson and the other gauge bosons in the Standard Model acquire mass via spontaneous symmetry breaking of the SU(2) gauge symmetry. The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) predicts several Higgs bosons. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced; physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson. Since then, the particle has been shown to behave, interact, and decay in many of the ways predicted for Higgs particles by the Standard Model, as well as having even parity and zero spin, two fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature.
Elementary bosons responsible for the four fundamental forces of nature are called force particles (gauge bosons). Strong interaction is mediated by the gluon, weak interaction is mediated by the W and Z bosons.
The graviton is a hypothetical particle that has been included in some extensions to the standard model to mediate the gravitational force. It is in a peculiar category between known and hypothetical particles: As an unobserved particle that is not predicted by, nor required for the Standard Model, it belongs in the table of hypothetical particles, below. But gravitational force itself is a certainty, and expressing that known force in the framework of a quantum field theory requires a boson to mediate it.
Just as the photon, Z boson and W bosons are superpositions of the B0, W0, W1, and W2 fields, the photino, zino, and wino are superpositions of the bino0, wino0, wino1, and wino2. No matter if one uses the original gauginos or this superpositions as a basis, the only predicted physical particles are neutralinos and charginos as a superposition of them together with the Higgsinos.
Ordinary mesons are made up of a valence quark and a valence antiquark. Because mesons have integer spin (0 or 1) and are not themselves elementary particles, they are classified as composite bosons, although being made of elementary fermions. Examples of mesons include the pion, kaon, and the J/ψ. In quantum hadrodynamics, mesons mediate the residual strong force between nucleons. 2ff7e9595c
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